Mar 30, · Henry Ford designed the first Model T to run on ethanol. But, at the time, gasoline was a much cheaper fuel. Additionally, Standard Oil was “reluctant to encourage the manufacture and sale of a competitive fuel produced by an industry in no way related to petroleum.” The petroleum industry has controlled the fuels market ever since History. The Aboriginal name for the Sale area is Wayput. Two famous Gippsland explorers, Paul Strzelecki and Angus McMillan, passed through the immediate area around The first white settler was Archibald McIntosh who arrived in and established his 'Flooding Creek' property on the flood plain country which was duly inundated soon after his arrival Dec 06, · These Afghanistan papers are a secret history of the war, Whitlock tells Powers, and “they contain these frank admissions of how the war was screwed up
History of United States foreign policy - Wikipedia
A cornerstone of U. environmental policy has been the reduction of harmful tailpipe emissions from cars and trucks. Thanks to EPA regulations of mobile sources, air pollutants have been reduced by millions of tons in the urban environment. Several EPA fuel regulations have concerned octane. Octane is a gasoline additive that is needed for the proper history papers for sale of modern engines.
Octane sources have taken many forms throughout the years, both renewable and petroleum-based. They include lead, methyl tertiary butyl ether MTBEbenzene, toluene, history papers for sale and xylene BTEXand ethanol a biofuel. As adverse health and environmental consequences have been discovered for lead and petroleum-based octane providers, they have been history papers for sale from the fuel supply or decreased.
Today, there are two primary sources of octane used in the U. gasoline supply, the BTEX complex a petroleum refining product commonly referred to as gasoline aromaticsand ethanol. Knock is virtually unknown to modern drivers. This is primarily because fuels contain an history papers for sale that prevents knock by adding oxygen to the fuel. This oxygenate is commonly referred to as octane.
At most retail gasoline stations, three octane grades are offered, 87 regular89 mid-gradeand premium. The higher the octane number, the more resistant the gasoline mixture is to knock. History papers for sale so would increase vehicle efficiency and lower greenhouse gases through decreased petroleum consumption. In the early 20th century, automotive manufacturers were searching for a chemical that would reduce engine knock. Inautomotive engineers working for General Motors discovered that tetraethyl lead better known as lead provided octane to gasoline, preventing engine knock.
While aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzene and alcohols such as ethanol were also known octane providers at the time, lead was the preferred choice due to its lower production cost.
Leaded gasoline was the predominant fuel type in the United States until the U. Environmental Protection Agency EPA began phasing it out in the mids because of proven serious health impacts. Early in its use as a fuel additive, health concerns were raised regarding the use of lead in gasoline.
In15 refinery workers in New Jersey and Ohio died of suspected lead poisoning. As a result, the Surgeon General temporarily suspended the production of leaded gasoline and convened a panel to investigate the potential dangers of lead use in gasoline.
Despite these warnings, the Surgeon General history papers for sale a voluntary standard of lead content, which the refining industry successfully met for decades. It was not until the s, following extensive health research, that the devastating health impacts of low-level lead exposure were established.
The health impacts of lead exposure in children include anemia, behavioral disorders, low IQ, history papers for sale, reading and learning disabilities, and nerve damage. In adults, lead exposure is associated with hypertension and cardiovascular disease.
Prior to the lead phase-out in gasoline, the total amount of lead used in gasoline was overtons per year. History papers for sale passed the Clean Air Act insetting in motion the formation of the EPA and, ultimately, the removal of lead from gasoline.
EPA estimates that between and68 million children were exposed to toxic levels of lead from leaded gasoline alone. The phase-out of lead from gasoline subsequently reduced the number of children with toxic levels of lead in their blood by 2 million individuals history papers for sale year between and The EPA is formed and given the authority to regulate compounds that endanger human health. Lead damages the catalytic converters used in history papers for sale new vehicles to control tailpipe emissions.
Catalytic converters are still used in vehicles today. Lead is still used in some aviation fuels. Thanks to coordinated efforts, lead is now absent from gasoline in most of the world. Following the lead phase-out in the United States, history papers for sale, the oil refining industry chose to construct additional refining capacity to produce octane from other petroleum products, rather than from renewable sources such as ethanol.
The History papers for sale Air Act Amendments CAAA of were the next major regulation of fuels. Among other things, CAAA requires areas that do not meet ground-level ozone standards to use reformulated gasoline RFG. RFG has an increased oxygenate content, which helps it burn more completely. As a result, RFG lowers the formation of ozone precursors and other air toxics during combustion.
Petroleum refiners were not required to use any particular oxygenate in RFG, but by the late s, history papers for sale, a petroleum product, methyl tertiary butyl ether MTBEwas used in 87 percent of RFG due to its ease of transport and blending.
In the Midwest, history papers for sale, ethanol was a more common component of RFG. Despite its success at history papers for sale ozone precursors, MTBE was phased out of the gasoline pool due to concerns over its solubility in water, which resulted in the contamination of water resources in numerous states.
As ofEPA reported that MTBE was not being used in significant quantities in the United States. Currently, history papers for sale, 30 percent of history papers for sale sold in the United States is reformulated gasoline. Ethanol is providing the additional octane required by RFG.
At the time, the U. Geological Survey USGS finds MTBE present in 20 percent of groundwater history papers for sale in RFG areas. At the same time, EPA and the U. Department of Agriculture USDA call for an increase in the use of ethanol to preserve air quality.
The BTEX complex is a hydrocarbon mixture of benzene, toluene, xylene and ethyl-benzene. Commonly referred to as gasoline aromatics, these compounds are refined from low-octane petroleum products into a high-octane gasoline additive. While some volume of BTEX is native to gasoline, it is also added to finished gasoline to boost its octane rating.
The total volume of BTEX aromatics in finished gasoline depends on the desired octane value and other desired fuel properties. When faced with the removal of lead as the primary octane provider in gasoline, refiners had two available alternatives, BTEX and ethanol.
The refining industry invested in additional refining capacity to replace lead with BTEX, a high-octane petroleum refining product. As a result of its substitution for lead, history papers for sale, BTEX volume rose from 22 percent to roughly a third of the gasoline pool by In premium gasoline grades, the BTEX volume content was as high as 50 percent, history papers for sale.
In mandating cleaner fuels, through reformulated gasoline and other programs, EPA has reduced the volume of aromatics to between 25 to 28 percent of the conventional gasoline pool, though some health professionals question the safety of even these levels. After the lead phase-out, history papers for sale were early concerns regarding the BTEX complex. Today, health research indeed suggests that even very low-level exposure to the BTEX complex, from gasoline additives and other petroleum products, may contribute to negative developmental, reproductive and immunological responses, as well as cardio-pulmonary effects.
Upon incomplete combustion of the BTEX complex contained in gasoline, ultra-fine particulates UFP and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons PAHs are formed, which carry their own adverse health impacts even at low levels. UFP and PAHs are carcinogenic and mutagenic.
Both UFP and PAHs have also been linked to developmental and neurodegenerative disorders, cancers, and cardio-pulmonary effects. Considerable attention has been given to benzene in fuel, as it is highly toxic. At the same time, the partial replacement of benzene with other aromatic compounds xylene, ethyl-benzene, toluene may not be sufficient in reducing exposure to BTEX's toxic effects.
Passed as part of the CAAA was S. The other aromatics, such as toluene and history papers for sale, are not capped. Early automakers expressed interest in plant-based alcohol fuels, such as ethanol. Henry Ford designed the first Model T to run on ethanol. But, history papers for sale, at the time, gasoline was a much cheaper fuel. During the oil embargo, regular unleaded gasoline prices jumped 57 percent and routine gasoline shortages also occurred.
These events, and the regulation of many air history papers for sale, sparked a renewed interest in fuel efficiency, electric vehicles, and renewable fuels such as ethanol, which were seen as ways to meet the new regulations and reduce petroleum consumption. Today, the majority of ethanol in the United States is blended with gasoline to produce E10 10 percent ethanol, 90 percent gasoline. Over 95 percent of gasoline sold in the United States is E In addition to having lower lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions than conventional gasoline, ethanol is an excellent octane provider, with neat pure ethanol having an octane rating of over Ethanol, which is generally the cheapest octane provider, is then used to bring the octane rating of the gasoline up to the labelled octane value on the gas pump.
For example, history papers for sale, 84 octane gasoline history papers for sale typically blended with 10 percent ethanol to reach the minimum octane requirement of 87 for retail gasoline. Currently, there are two ways of increasing the octane content of gasoline: increasing the volume of gasoline aromatics or increasing the volume of ethanol.
While ethanol has a higher volatility than gasoline, meaning it vaporizes more quickly, it is a cleaner-burning alternative to petroleum-based octane boosters. Additionally, the toxicity of ethanol is low compared to the health effects of BTEX and its combustion products, such as ultrafine particulates UFPs and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons PAHs. A modest increase of ethanol content in fuel from 10 to 15 percent would result in an anticipated 6.
There is contradictory evidence that increasing ethanol content in gasoline increases nitrous oxide NOX emissions, an ozone precursor. Several studies find either no relationship between ethanol blending and NOX emissions, or find decreased NOX emissions with increasing ethanol volumes. Other studies suggest older cars emit more NOX when using ethanol blends. However, a study of make and model year vehicles found no increase in NOX emissions between E10, E15 and E20 blends, suggesting that both engine design and engine age play a role in NOX emissions.
Overall, the effect of ethanol on NOX and carbon monoxide CO emissions is minor in newer engine emission control systems. RFS sets a minimum volume of renewable biofuels to be blended into the transportation fuel supply.
Final renewable fuel volumes for are This includes the categories of renewable fuels, cellulosic biofuels, advanced biofuels and biomass-based diesel. Lead and various petroleum products have provided octane to gasoline for over years, history papers for sale, but evolving health and environmental concerns have led policymakers to reconsider the widespread use of many of these compounds.
As the United States looks to reduce the greenhouse gas intensity of the transportation sector, increasing the octane value of gasoline is a promising avenue, as it would enable more fuel-efficient engines.
But the health and environmental impacts of the octane sources that are used must be considered as well. A national transition to an optimized mid-level ethanol blend, between E25 25 percent ethanol, 75 percent gasoline and E40 40 percent ethanolhistory papers for sale, would lower consumer fuel costs and standardize the fuel supply. The Department of Energy recognizes that increasing the ethanol content of gasoline is a potential pathway to increasing the octane rating of the gasoline supply.
A mid-level ethanol blend would enable the design of highly fuel-efficient engines that would significantly reduce petroleum consumption, reduce lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions, and help meet higher fuel economy standards. As of now, the Department of Energy and the EPA have approved the use of E15 for make and model year and newer vehicles, which account for 80 percent of the vehicles on the road today.
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Aug 31, · “Like the Pentagon Papers of the Vietnam War, The Afghanistan Papers expose decades of deceit and the persistence of an American brand of imperialism. Examined by the sharp eye of Craig Whitlock, this history provides ample evidence that citizens should finally reject the baseless claim that U.S. military power is a unique force for good in Welcome to History For Sale. With over , items in our archives, HistoryForSale is the world's largest dealer of authentic hand-signed autographs and collectibles. From autographed celebrity photographs and rare historical manuscripts to unique music and Dec 06, · These Afghanistan papers are a secret history of the war, Whitlock tells Powers, and “they contain these frank admissions of how the war was screwed up
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